Forms of Educational Leave in Europe
28 Jul 2005
Forms of educational leave in Europe
Report by CEDEFOP
Introduction
The Lisbon European Council in March 2000 stressed the necessity to promote lifelong learning (LLL) in a knowledge society and to ensure vocational competence for adults. Employees cannot remain static in their work and careers, change is called for at all levels and also in their private lives. A balance has to be found between work and family commitments; time has to be planned to cater for both. In this scenario, the idea of leave from work for educational and family reasons is more important than ever. While for many it opens new opportunities, e.g. giving people a second chance to gain basic qualifications, taking time out for learning begins to be seen as a risk in some new professions in which the pace is so fast that there is a danger of being left behind.
The recent European Commission Communication Making a European Area of Lifelong Learning a Reality (European Commission, 2001) defines LLL as all learning undertaken throughout life supporting the objectives of personal fulfilment, active citizenship, social inclusion and employability/adaptability. One of the priorities for achieving this is by investing time and money in learning, i.e. by providing ‘adequate resourcing’ and ‘facilitating access to learning opportunities’. It is important that the Communication recalls these challenges and addresses them in light of current economic, social and employment conditions. They are not, however, something new and synonymous with the knowledge society. ILO Convention 140 (C140) [1] pre-empted many of the same preoccupations in 1974, introduced in the wake of contemporary initiatives by OECD, Unesco and the Council of Europe on lifelong learning or recurrent education.
In 1974, ILO C140 saw educational leave as part of an employee’s right to education and recognised that ‘the need for continuing education and training, related to scientific and technical development and the changing pattern of economic and social relations call for appropriate leave for educational and training purposes’. Article 2 calls on each Member to apply a policy granting paid education leave for the purposes of ‘training at any level, general, social or civic education, or trade union education’. Article 3 stipulates that policy should contribute to the ‘acquisition, improvement and adaptation of occupational and functional skills, and the promotion of employment and job security in conditions of scientific and technological development and economic and structural change; ... participation of workers and their representatives in the life of the undertaking and the community; to the human, social and cultural advancement of workers; and generally, ....helping workers adjust to contemporary requirements’. Questions of subsidiarity and equal opportunities were also addressed, and Article 9 provided for special provisions for particular categories of workers, such as workers in small enterprises, rural or other workers working in isolated areas, shift workers, etc. who would have difficulties fitting into general arrangements.
In light of the new impetus given to lifelong learning and access to learning, a Socrates project was coordinated by Arbeit und Leben, Germany (an institution of political youth and adult education maintained by the German Trade Union Federation and the Volkshochschulen), with partners in Belgium, France and Italy, to examine paid educational leave in the four participating countries [2]. Cedefop was interested in extending this overview. Following contact with the project coordinators, Cedefop used their format as the basis for a comprehensive survey of the situation in all EU Member States, Norway and Iceland. The data was collected through the Documentation Network and the information is available in full in the Library and Documentation Service section of this website.
Ratification of C140 in Europe
ILO C140 on paid educational leave (PEL) was ratified by 32 countries worldwide. In the European Union, only eight of the Member States have ratified the convention. A further seven emerging economies, mostly aspiring candidate countries from Central and Eastern Europe have ratified it:
Table 1: Ratification of C140 in Europe
| Country | Ratification date |
| EU Member States | |
| Belgium | 12.01.1993 |
| Finland | 24.02.1992 |
| France | 20.10.1975 |
| Germany | 30.11.1976 |
| Netherlands | 14.09.1976 |
| Spain | 18.09.1978 |
| Sweden | 23.09.1975 |
| United Kingdom | 04.12.1975 |
| Other European States | |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 02.06.1993 |
| Czech Republic | 01.01.1993 |
| Hungary | 10.06.1975 |
| Poland | 23.04.1979 |
| San Marino | 19.04.1988 |
| Slovakia | 01.01.1993 |
| Slovenia | 29.05.1992 |
Source:http://ilolex.ilo.ch:1567/scripts/convde.pl?query=C140&query0=140&submit=Display.
Nevertheless, educational leave, paid or unpaid, exists in some form in most countries. Even Ireland and United Kingdom, where so far no comprehensive legal framework for educational leave exists, have examples of such practice. Despite the fact that the ILO convention has been ratified in the United Kingdom, this has not been followed up by legislation, a voluntary approach is preferred. In Ireland, educational leave is applied in an unregulated way both in the civil service and private industry - especially in larger companies, banks, IT companies. The educational leave issue in Ireland is being viewed in a positive way by both trade unions and national authorities. The civil service officially encourages the taking of educational leave although it has no regulations in place, and the IBEC (Irish Business and Employers’ Confederation) has brought out guidelines on the practice for members to use if they wish. The White Paper on Adult Education also makes an aspirational reference to educational leave, while the Task Force on lifelong learning set up under the tripartite Programme for Prosperity and Peace, is examining access to education and training, in particular issues such as fees and educational leave.
Categorising paid educational leave
PEL is characterised by the participant receiving all or part of his/her wages during leave for educational purposes. Some general patterns can be recognised regarding leave, but exceptions and special regulations for target groups are widespread, and make for a rather complicated picture as a whole. Therefore, the following tries to represent the main tendencies. For a complete overview and qualifications, see country descriptions .
The following models emerge:
a) educational leave is short and payment of wages is assured by the employer without any recourse to external financing of funds (D, EL, IS, L, NL, P, UK). In this instance, the leave is usually for three to five days and is used for work-related continuing vocational training. In Germany, for example, key courses relate to foreign language learning, ICT, oratory and communication skills. Leave is seen as a shared responsibility: employer pays wages, employee pays course fee; the State finances provision.
b)educational leave can vary from short to longer periods of up a year or more, either on a full-time or part-time basis A, F, B, E, DK, I (150 hours). Participants continue to receive their salary (or a reduced salary), but the employer is reimbursed or receives compensation from special funds set up to pay for educational leave; or they receive an allowance based around the minimum wage.
c) in another group of countries only the right to educational leave is assured by law (Finland, Italy (new Law No 53/2000), Norway, Sweden). Participants must see to the funding from one of the mechanisms foreseen for funding adult education and training. The employer is not obliged to pay salaries during leave, but can contribute on a voluntary basis.
Objectives
In all countries, the main objective of PEL is to build a competent workforce by enabling the release of employees from their work to attend vocational or continuing training that will enhance their professional knowledge and competence and personal career development. The main goal is building on or upgrading the occupational qualifications of employees. Many countries privilege leave to prepare for or sit examinations. Leave is also intended to assist those who wish to switch activity or occupation (France, Iceland), or those who are compelled to adapt to change (e.g. Spain), or remain employable (Netherlands). It is also possible to take leave for the purpose of social advancement and sensitising workers to their civic responsibilities (B, D, E, F, I, L). In the Nordic countries, leave is also possible for general education and adult liberal education.
Therefore, the learning undertaken may or may not be vocational in nature, or related to company needs. Training for personal development is stipulated in some countries, however, what is meant is usually personal development in one’s career, and not in the wider sense of personal fulfilment. It is more usual to take unpaid educational leave for this purpose in a range of countries.
Types of training and providers
Educational leave is in general seen as learning opportunities in addition to work-related or job-specific training or continuing training provided by the employer. Finland excludes training or study on instruction from the employer for eligibility under the educational-leave scheme. Measures should not be integrated as part of a company plan or training programme, or group-training plan in Spain. Similar rules apply in France. In general, self-tuition does not qualify for (paid) educational leave. Physical presence at a course of tutorial is usually required. For example in Spain, only the part of distance learning that requires attendance is financed. In France, leave in allowed in relation to correspondence courses when related trainee groups are convened during working hours, but not for courses which take place entirely outside working hours. However, practical placements in companies can be undertaken as part of a training programme within the framework of paid educational leave, as is true also in Denmark. If it can be proven that the activity was undertaken during working hours, collecting data for a doctoral thesis can in certain circumstances qualify for paid education leave in Spain. Austria and the Netherlands specify training or continuing training measures.
Training abroad, particularly in other EU Member States is also permitted in a number of countries (e.g. Denmark, France, Finland, and Sweden). In France, it is possible to go outside the EU in special cases when a course in not available at home or in the EU.
Usually, courses can be attended at public or private schools or training centres that are officially recognised or provide a certificate or evidence of attendance at the end. In certain cases only the designated providers qualify, e.g. in Germany, State institutions or agencies delegated to this task, which do not organise courses exclusively for profit. Whereas in Austria any institution that issues confirmation of attendance or a final certificates can be attended. In Sweden, the right to leave covers all courses, but study assistance is available only for studies in the official system which have a curriculum. In Spain, special permission is needed to attend private training centres or universities.
Targeting special groups
A special category, growing in importance, is the provision in some countries of educational leave to upgrade the competence level of the lower skilled members of the workforce. Special leave on full pay, or with full unemployment benefits, is being granted in Sweden for workers to complete compulsory education, and later to continue to acquire a qualification at the level of upper secondary education. In Norway, as part of the competence reform, to boost competence at the workplace, full- or part-time leave is available for up to three years to employees who have not completed basic primary or secondary education. Leave for primary and secondary education for adults can be co-financed through government allocations for the reform. The new adult education and continuing training reform in Denmark emphasises giving everyone over 18 years the possibility to achieve a basis level of general or vocational education. Paid leave is available for this purpose and a system of part-time leave, or alternation between work and education, is being encouraged. For vocational courses, a system of integrated delivery has been introduced, incorporating time of in the workplace to participate in training drawn up by the employer, employee and trainers. The Netherlands prioritises employees lacking the required level of competence as a specific target group for PEL. Courses to prevent illiteracy and to improve the position of migrant workers are also earmarked in Italy and Sweden.
Inclusion of the unemployed (also in Denmark, Italy, Iceland, Norway, Spain) and related moves in Finland as part of the Training Insurance Guarantee) are a positive step forward. It gives the unemployed freedom to participate in education and training of their own choice, and not just employment training designed for job seekers. It also removes the obligation on them to take up a job offer before completing training.
In 1999, parallel regulations were introduced in England and Wales and in Scotland giving young people aged 16 and 17 paid time off to train or study for a Level 2 qualification. The objective is to give young people who left school with little of no qualification a second opportunity. At the other end of the scale, in Austria, since 1 October 2000, workers above the age of 45 receive a continuing training allowance amounting to the fictive level of unemployment benefit, while on PEL. During unpaid leave, they also retain their pension insurance. However, such a supportive policy towards older employees is not always apparent. In Luxembourg, applicants must in principle be under 30 years, but given the waivers foreseen this hardly applies in practice. In countries where leave is combined with study grants, e.g. Finland and Sweden, there is an upper age limit. In Finland study grants are payable to persons aged 30 to 54 years, while in Sweden grants terminate at the age of 50 years, and afterwards the only recourse is to loans. Such policies are not conducive to solving the problem of the ageing workforce and enticing people to stay longer in employment.
Eligibility
The leave arrangements currently in operation across the Member States vary a great deal in terms of target groups and/or sectors, eligibility criteria (see Table 1), types of training covered, and eligible providers. Legislation covers both public and private sector employees in Italy, Luxembourg, Finland, Netherlands, Sweden, Iceland, and Norway. France and Portugal have a separate law governing leave in the public sector. In Germany, not all Federal States have laws regulating the release of workers for PEL, and there are no legal provisions governing release of certain groups, e.g. Works Councils and Staff Councils, public officials and judges. However, in countries where the public sector is not covered by the general laws on PEL, this does not mean that no provision exists. In many cases arrangements do exist within the public services themselves. In Belgium and Austria public sector employees are also entitled to unpaid leave of absence, which is not necessarily for educational purposes. As a rule in most countries, the legislation on PEL or additional legislation makes provision for the employee whose request for PEL has been unsuccessful to apply for unpaid leave. The general legislation in some countries specifies the eligibility of employees with any form of contract (e.g. Portugal, Sweden), temporary workers in Finland, part-time workers during their non-working periods in Spain.
Particular groups are subject to separate regulations in some countries:
Teachers in Portugal, public servants in France and Portugal, representatives on staff delegations, which are obligatory in companies with more that 15 employees in Luxembourg. In France, separate rules further the principle that employees on fixed-term contracts or temporary workers have the same entitlements as those on open-ended contracts. Medical professionals in Iceland and France come under specific legislation, in Iceland doctors and teachers are obliged to take educational leave.
Table 2: Eligibility
| Country | Eligibility, duration | |
| A | Austria | After at least three years of continuous service with the same employer. For between three months and one year. |
| B | Belgium | Employees in full-time employment under one or more contract. For minimum of 32 hours, with annual limit of 80, 120 or 180 hours, depending on programme. |
| DK | Denmark | Any employee, 18 years or older to pursue preparatory or basic adult education. For 3-3½ years alternating with work. Employees over 25 with at least 2 years work experience to pursue advanced-level education and training, for up to one year full time. |
| D | Germany | After six months of service. For five days a year or 10 days in two years. |
| E | Spain | After at least one year in the same company. Right to training for up to one academic year, right to payment for 200 hours. |
| EL | Greece | In the private sector individual employers decide. Up to 20 days a year are allowed for examinations. In the public sector, after a minimum of three years, for up to five years during working life. |
| F | France | After 24 months of service (36 in SMEs), of which 12 must have been in the present company. For up to one year or 1 200 hours for part-time courses, repeatable at intervals of six months to six years depending on time-out taken. |
| FIN | Finland | After a minimum of three months with the main employer, entitlement for a total of not more than five days. Employed with the same employer for at least one year, for a total of not more than two years. Repeatable after five years. |
| I | Italy | At least five years service, for a maximum of 11 months during working life. ‘150 Hours’: any employee as long as not more than 2%‑3% of employees are on leave at one time. |
| IS | Iceland | Terms spelled out in the agreements for each sector. |
| IRL | Ireland | No rules – at discretion of employers. Unpaid leave for up to three years is prevalent in the public service, particularly among teachers. |
| L | Luxembourg | After a minimum of six months in employment, for 20 days per two year period and a maximum of 60 days during working life. |
| N | Norway | After three years of service, two of which with the same employer, for a maximum of three years full or part-time. |
| NL | Netherlands | Conditions vary from sector to sector. Leave is for an average of five days per annum. A minimum of 12 months service is necessary to qualify for unpaid leave. |
| P | Portugal | No minimum service required except for teachers. For three to six hours per week, or in one block. |
| S | Sweden | Employed for at least six months or at least 12 over the last two years. From one hour per day, to two days per week and so on to a total of six years full-time. |
| UK | United Kingdom | Voluntary system at discretion of employers. Legislation stipulates that 17 to 18 year olds without a qualification are entitled to leave to prepare for a Level 2 qualification (one day a week recommended). |
Source: Compiled by Cedefop on the basis of data in the country descriptions
Involvement of the social partners
Educational leave gives employed people (and sometimes, other target groups) the right to participate in the training of their choice with the agreement of their employer. Securing the involvement and consent of the social partners in operating leave schemes is, therefore, essential. Their involvement takes various forms, some examples are highlighted here.
A centralised legal framework does not exist in the Netherlands. Paid educational leave is arranged by collective agreements at sectoral level, hence, considerable sectoral differences occur. Further to legislation in Germany, social partners have negotiated collective agreements on continuing training which also include educational leave; at company level agreements between management and workers representatives have been signed. The social partners, together with State bodies, monitor and control the system. Also in France collective agreements supplement legislation, and joint committees are responsible for its implementation, financing, and appeals. Similarly in Belgium, a joint Approvals Committee, comprising the social partner representatives and the Ministry of Employment and Labour, decides on leave applications, etc. In companies employing over 100 employees in Belgium, there is the option of managing absences for paid educational leave through a collective working agreement drawn up at company level and signed by all the organisations represented in the trade union delegation.
In Italy collective agreements are negotiated affecting education and training. At sectoral level, national agreements define the conditions for attendance, while at company level there is agreement on how entitlement is implemented. In Iceland, the right to educational leave and the right to funding of education and training undertaken during employment on behalf of the employer are governed by the Act on vocational training in Industry. The basis for implementation is to be found in collective agreements between the social partners, such as wage agreements or agreements on specific occupational sectors. Although the Swedish law makes provision only for the right to leave, collective agreements exist concerning in-company education and training, and individual employers are free to support any employee who wishes to study outside of work. The latter practice is also encouraged in other countries.
The main contribution of the employer, apart from granting time off for leave, is his contribution to funding PEL (see Table 3). In principle, educational leave should not interfere with the smooth running of the enterprise, and regulations exist safeguarding the interests of the employer, as well as the employee, particularly in countries where the employer makes a substantial investment in wages during leave. The employer can postpone leave if there are compelling reasons in the company for doing so. A common reason is if specific release quotas have been exceeded (Belgium, Germany, France, Italy). The right to leave does not expire. The leave can be postponed for a number of months, or until the requested course comes up again. If a request is repeatedly turned down, the matter can be taken up with the responsible bodies or labour court (Sweden). These instances can also be addressed to deal with disputes regarding payment.
During short-term leave the employee’s contract continues as normal, and s/he continues to receive wages and benefits. For longer periods of leave, the employment contract is not broken but suspended (e.g. France). Varying regulations are in force regarding social insurance and pension contributions during leave, and whether these periods count towards calculating pensions, etc.
Table 3: Remuneration
| Country | Form of remuneration during leave | |
| A | Austria | EUR 407 per month. Continuing training allowance, funded from unemployment insurance funds, 50% employees’ contributions, 50% employers’ contributions. |
| B | Belgium | EUR 1 785 ceiling per month, 9/2000. Government grant maintained by the Ministry for Employment and Labour or employer contribution funded through special payment to social security funds. |
| DK | Denmark | Leave for courses equal to compulsory youth education programmes (general or vocational), is financed 100% by the State. Otherwise wages come form 8% tax on incomes paid by employers & employees. |
| D | Germany | Employer continues to pay normal salary. |
| E | Spain | Wages reimbursed to employer through Forcem with the agreement of the Joint Regional Committee. Funded from 0.35% contribution by employers and employers for continuing vocational training. |
| EL | Greece | Wages funded by the European Social Fund and the Manpower Employment Organization – OAED (60%) and by the enterprise (40%). Public servants’ leave funded by the State budget. |
| F | France | Wage (with ceiling for those earning twice the min. wage) reimbursed by OPACIF - Joint Body for Personal Training Leave – which administers the 0.20% of gross wages from all companies with 10 or more employees earmarked to fund personal training leave . |
| FIN | Finland | Between EUR 259 and EUR 470 per month, plus housing allowance or state loan guarantee (EUR 303) in some cases. State-funded study grant for mature students, perhaps voluntary contribution from employer. |
| I | Italy | Interprofessional Fund for Continuing Training. Normal wage - under ‘150 Hours’ scheme. |
| IS | Iceland | Employer pays normal wage during short-term leave, otherwise it is subject to negotiation with employer. Unemployed continue to receive State benefit. |
| IRL | Ireland | - |
| L | Luxembourg | Allowance equal to salary, reimbursed to the employer by the State. |
| N | Norway | State guarantees subsistence wage for low-skilled workers completing primary or secondary education, others apply for educational funding administered by the State Educational Loan Fund. |
| NL | Netherlands | Depending on the sector, wages are paid from the Onderwijs & Ontwikkeling (O&O) funds, to which enterprises contribute on average 0.5% of wage costs. |
| P | Portugal | Wages are paid as usual by the employer. |
| S | Sweden | Study support equal to EUR 173.5 per week is available to any one who does not have an (earned or unearned) income of more that EUR 9 887 annually, during leave. An additional loan is available for those forfeiting a high salary during leave. |
| UK | United Kingdom | National Traineeships or work-based training courses leading to NVQ 2, are funded by government. Employers can also apply for a contribution when other options are involved. Average cost is around EUR 1 270 per employee per year. |
Source: Compiled by Cedefop on the basis of data in the country descriptions
Unpaid leave and Jobrotation
Other types of unpaid leave or career break can be sought for the purpose of caring for child or sick or disabled family members, for rest, leisure or with a view to trying out a new career. Such leave, which has its own laws and regulations, is sometimes used for learning. Apart from the various PEL schemes, some countries provide other types of leave without financial support to employed people who are interested in receiving further training. Unpaid educational leave is often applied on a voluntarist basis (e.g. United Kingdom), or it is based on collective agreements made between the social partners (Germany, Iceland and Sweden). In Finland, Italy and Norway the same rules as for PEL apply.
Jobrotation started in Denmark in 1989 and was later incorporated into legislation on educational leave. It is a form of active labour market policy which, particularly during times of high unemployment, frees employees to take leave to upgrade their competence, during which time their place is filled by a job seeker. Although still most common in Denmark, jobrotation was introduced in 13 EU Member States the Community Initiative Adapt [3]. Now unpaid leave schemes are being related more formally to jobrotation. Austria provides unpaid educational leave to employees in all sectors, and also to registered unemployed persons in order to reintegrate them into the work process. Although this leave is by definition unpaid, it can also be financed by unemployment insurance funds, if the candidate applies for the continuing training allowance. A pre-condition for such authorisation is that the employer should conclusively show that a replacement has been recruited for this period.
Similar jobrotation schemes combined with unpaid educational leave exists also in The Netherlands, since financial support is made conditional on replacement of the employee during his leave by an unemployed person under a temporary employment contract. In this way the Dutch government aims at offering a chance to unemployed people and the disabled to re-enter the labour market.
In Belgium, unpaid leave is provided to full-time or part-time workers, not only for educational purposes but also for other reasons such as parenthood or nursing of an ill member of the family. In the case of unpaid educational leave, the career break gives an opportunity to employed persons to call a temporary halt to or reduce their professional activity in order to spend their extra free time in further education and training. A career-break benefit is offered to the participants for the compensation of their loss of income. However, in order to be entitled to this benefit, the employer must commit himself to replace the employee on leave with an unemployed person. In this way the system can be considered as a source of labour and income repartition.
In Finland, unpaid educational leave is provided to both private and public sector employees under the same conditions of eligibility as PEL, while there is separate legislation on jobrotation leave. Similarly, full-time workers under certain pre-conditions may shift to part-time work and let an unemployed person fill the other part of the shared job. The person who has been granted jobrotation leave can use this period of leave in the way that s/he chooses, not only for studies but also for hobbies, rest, or taking care of his/her children, etc. Finland also provides parenthood allowance and child-care home allowance, both of which can be used for the purpose of further training.
Conclusions
Paid educational leave is essential for developing access to and motivating people to participate in lifelong learning. It is a necessary instrument of continuing educational and training, in an age in which constant change requires that an employee’s key qualifications and personal development are upgraded, enlarged and strengthened continuously. Kallen [4] (1996) felt that one reason why lifelong learning policy has not developed is because legislation on paid educational leave exists in few countries and it has been made conditional on ‘professional training’. His first contention is not exactly true of the picture today, as we see it above. In theory at least, some form of PEL is legislated for in most countries. Although it is probably true that most leave is taken for the purpose of ‘professional training’, we have also seen that the trend is widening to include, for example, basic education for the low skilled.
One fact that cannot be denied is that PEL is drastically under-subscribed. In so far as data are available, they show low rates of participation. In Germany, only 1.5% participate overall, though an average of 15% a year was expected when the system was first introduced in the 1970s. One barrier may be that the participant carries the cost of course fees, which in some cases have undergone massive increases, while at the same time public funds for continuing training have been cut back. Figures in Austria are similarly low, although legislation is relatively new there, dating from 1998, as are the figures for Spain. The only exceptions are France and the Netherlands. The Projet de loi de finances 2001 -formation professionnelle shows that almost 24 000 employees and 5 492 on fixed term contracts took personal training leave in 1999, in addition to public service workers. 41% of Dutch employees took training in 1999, many using PEL (http://www.cbs.nl/nl/cijfers/statline/statline_updates.asp).
It is also worth mentioning in this connection that the situation in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) remains difficult. Efforts to extend the system to SMEs and part-time workers was dropped in Belgium due to lack of uptake during the pilot phases which ended on 30 September 2000 and 31 December 2000 respectively. Only the legislation in Austria and France makes specific provision for SMEs, while in Iceland, where almost all companies are small, one-man businesses and freelancers are emphasised.
The European Commission’s Communication underlines that investment in time is as necessary as money. Money can to some extent be reallocated and the Communication calls on Member States to look into this. Time on the other hand is not always foreseen and the Communication suggests a benchmark of ‘35 hours of learning per year for every employee’. Particularly, against the background new individual learning scheme developments, such as time accounts (Lernkonten in Austria) and individual learning accounts (ILAs), this is an important question. Reforms in Denmark are attempting to come up with new scenarios for the time and place of learning. However, one must look at the financial situation of participants to understand why greater use is not made of this opportunity (see Table 3), in some countries at least. Payment during leave, apart from short-term leave, is generally based on minimum wages levels or student subsistence allowances. Such arrangements may be adequate to attract young, single, employees, but those supporting a family are not attracted by such opportunities, even if the wages are to some extent aligned to seniority, pay levels, additional allowances, etc.
Given the proper support, educational leave, particularly paid educational leave, provides a good example of investment in human resources. By facilitating further education and training opportunities for employees, it will lead to better and easier adaptation of the workforce to technical changes, increase job mobility, reduce the risk of unemployment and improve the production system, while also giving them the opportunity to become more informed and active citizens. It should be encouraged by employers to provide their personnel with time and flexibility to part-take in lifelong learning, with a positive impact on both employees’ cultural and professional life and on employment productivity.
Main legal instruments
| A | Austria | Arbeitsvertragsrechts-Anpassungsgesetzes (AVRAG) - Law on Adaptation of Labour and Contract Law, amended 9/1997. |
| B | Belgium | Royal Decree of 23 July 1985 implementing section 6 - granting of paid educational leave in the framework of continuing training of workers - and various amendments. |
| D | Germany | Hamburg: The Hamburg Law on Educational Leave (HambBUG) of 21.01.1974, and similar laws for all but five of the Federal Länder. |
| E | Spain | Royal Legislative Degree 1/1995, of 24 March, (B.O.E. 29.03.1995) adopting the revised text of the Law on the Statute for Workers. |
| EL | Greece | Administrative law for public service personnel (Articles 58, 59, 60). |
| F | France | Laws No 90-613 of 12 July 1990, and No 2000-267 of 6 July 2000, codified under Articles L. 931-1 ff. of the Employment Code, and by the national inter-professional agreement of 3.7.91, Article 31-2 as changed by the amendment of 5.7.94, extended respectively on 2 November 1992 and 10 May 1995. |
| FIN | Finland | Act governing educational leave (273/1979). |
| I | Italy | The‘Workers’ Statute’ (Law No 300/1970), Law No 53/2000 which implements unpaid study leave. |
| IS | Iceland | Act No 19 on Vocational Training in the Labour Market, from 15 May 1992. |
| L | Luxembourg | Law of October 1973, as amended by the Laws of 27 February 1984 and 1 June 1989. |
| N | Norway | Chapter VIII A, para. D in the Working Environment Act. This provision entered into force on 1 January 2001. |
| NL | Netherlands | PEL is governed by collective agreements, Wet Financiering Loopbaanonderbreking - the law on career breaks affects unpaid leave only. |
| S | Sweden | Lagen om arbetstagares rätt till ledighet för utbildning - law on employees’ right to educational leave (1974:981). |
| UK | United Kingdom | Part III of the Teaching and Higher Education Act 1998. |
Bibliography
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Acronyms/glossary
| LLL | lifelong learning |
| ILO | International Labour Organisation |
| OECD | Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development |
| Unesco | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation |
| PEL | paid educational leave |
| IBEC | Irish Business and Employers Confederation |
| SMEs | small and medium-sized enterprises |
| ILA | individual learning account |
| NVQ | National Vocational Qualification (United Kingdom) |
| (O&O) funds | Onderwijs & Ontwikkeling (O&O) (The Netherlands) sectoral training and development funds |
| OAED | Manpower Employment Organisation (Greece) |
[1] C140 Paid Education Leave Convention, 1974, adopted 24.06.74, entered in force 23.04.76. http://ilolex.ilo.ch:1567/scripts/convde.pl?query=C140&query0=140&submit=Display[cited 05.06.2002]
[2] The final report of the project, Paid Educational Leave(PEL) in Europe- a strategy for LLL, is available in English, French, German, Italian: http://www.arbeitundleben.de/projekt-bu/index.htm.
[3] See Kruhoeffer, Jens, Jobrotation development and dissemination in Europe, Cedefop Agora 8..
[4] Kallen D., (1996). Lifelong learning in retrospect. The European journal Vocational Training, No 8/9.
